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C++, despite its power and flexibility, has several common anti-patterns that can lead to bugs, performance issues, and maintenance problems. Here are the most important anti-patterns to avoid when writing C++ code.
// Anti-pattern: Unclear raw pointer ownership
void processData() {
    MyClass* obj = new MyClass();
    doSomething(obj);
    // Who deletes obj? This function? The doSomething function?
    // What if an exception occurs?
    delete obj;
}

// Better approach: Use smart pointers
void processData() {
    auto obj = std::make_unique<MyClass>();
    doSomething(obj.get());
    // No need to delete - unique_ptr handles it automatically
}
Raw pointers don’t express ownership, leading to memory leaks or double-free errors. Use smart pointers (std::unique_ptr, std::shared_ptr) to clearly express ownership semantics.
// Anti-pattern: Manual resource management
void processFile(const std::string& filename) {
    FILE* file = fopen(filename.c_str(), "r");
    if (!file) {
        return;
    }
    
    // Process file...
    
    // What if an exception occurs here?
    fclose(file);
}

// Better approach: RAII (Resource Acquisition Is Initialization)
void processFile(const std::string& filename) {
    std::ifstream file(filename);
    if (!file) {
        return;
    }
    
    // Process file...
    
    // No need to close - ifstream's destructor handles it
}
Manual resource management is error-prone. Use RAII (Resource Acquisition Is Initialization) to automatically manage resources through object lifetimes.
// Anti-pattern: Missing const
class Vector {
public:
    float getLength() { return std::sqrt(x*x + y*y); }
    float getX() { return x; }
    float getY() { return y; }

private:
    float x, y;
};

// Better approach: Use const for methods that don't modify state
class Vector {
public:
    float getLength() const { return std::sqrt(x*x + y*y); }
    float getX() const { return x; }
    float getY() const { return y; }

private:
    float x, y;
};
Use const for methods that don’t modify object state, parameters that shouldn’t be modified, and return values that shouldn’t be modified.
// Anti-pattern: Raw loops
bool containsValue(const std::vector<int>& vec, int value) {
    for (size_t i = 0; i < vec.size(); ++i) {
        if (vec[i] == value) {
            return true;
        }
    }
    return false;
}

// Better approach: Use standard algorithms
bool containsValue(const std::vector<int>& vec, int value) {
    return std::find(vec.begin(), vec.end(), value) != vec.end();
}
Standard algorithms are more expressive, less error-prone, and often more efficient than raw loops. Use them whenever possible.
// Anti-pattern: Premature optimization
void processData(const std::vector<int>& data) {
    // Micro-optimization without profiling
    int* buffer = static_cast<int*>(malloc(data.size() * sizeof(int)));
    for (size_t i = 0; i < data.size(); ++i) {
        buffer[i] = data[i] * 2;
    }
    // Process buffer...
    free(buffer);
}

// Better approach: Write clear code first, then optimize if needed
void processData(const std::vector<int>& data) {
    std::vector<int> result;
    result.reserve(data.size()); // Still reasonably efficient
    
    for (int value : data) {
        result.push_back(value * 2);
    }
    // Process result...
}
Write clear, maintainable code first, then optimize only after profiling identifies bottlenecks.
// Anti-pattern: Old C-style code
char* createMessage(const char* name, int age) {
    char* buffer = new char[100];
    sprintf(buffer, "Name: %s, Age: %d", name, age);
    return buffer; // Caller must delete this!
}

// Better approach: Modern C++ features
std::string createMessage(std::string_view name, int age) {
    return fmt::format("Name: {}, Age: {}", name, age);
}
Use modern C++ features like std::string, std::string_view, std::optional, std::variant, and others to write safer, more expressive code.
// Anti-pattern: Using NULL or 0 for pointers
void processData(MyClass* ptr) {
    if (ptr == NULL) {
        return;
    }
    // Process data...
}

// Better approach: Use nullptr
void processData(MyClass* ptr) {
    if (ptr == nullptr) {
        return;
    }
    // Process data...
}
Use nullptr instead of NULL or 0 for null pointers. It’s type-safe and avoids ambiguity with integer literals.
// Anti-pattern: Verbose type declarations
std::map<std::string, std::vector<std::pair<int, std::string>>>::iterator it = myMap.begin();

// Better approach: Use auto
auto it = myMap.begin();
Use auto for complex types to improve readability and maintainability, especially for iterators and lambda types.
// Anti-pattern: Traditional for loop
std::vector<int> numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
for (std::vector<int>::iterator it = numbers.begin(); it != numbers.end(); ++it) {
    std::cout << *it << std::endl;
}

// Better approach: Range-based for loop
std::vector<int> numbers = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
for (const auto& num : numbers) {
    std::cout << num << std::endl;
}
Use range-based for loops for cleaner, more readable iteration over containers.
// Anti-pattern: Manual tuple unpacking
std::map<std::string, int> ages = {/* ... */};
for (const auto& pair : ages) {
    const std::string& name = pair.first;
    int age = pair.second;
    std::cout << name << ": " << age << std::endl;
}

// Better approach: Structured bindings (C++17)
std::map<std::string, int> ages = {/* ... */};
for (const auto& [name, age] : ages) {
    std::cout << name << ": " << age << std::endl;
}
Use structured bindings (C++17) to unpack tuples, pairs, and other structured data more cleanly.
// Anti-pattern: Special values for "no result"
int findValue(const std::vector<int>& vec, int target) {
    for (int val : vec) {
        if (val == target) {
            return val;
        }
    }
    return -1; // Special value to indicate "not found"
}

// Better approach: Use std::optional (C++17)
std::optional<int> findValue(const std::vector<int>& vec, int target) {
    for (int val : vec) {
        if (val == target) {
            return val;
        }
    }
    return std::nullopt;
}
Use std::optional (C++17) to represent values that may or may not be present, instead of using special values or output parameters.
// Anti-pattern: Type-unsafe unions
union Value {
    int intValue;
    double doubleValue;
    char* stringValue;
};

struct Variant {
    Value value;
    enum { INT, DOUBLE, STRING } type;
};

// Better approach: Use std::variant (C++17)
using Value = std::variant<int, double, std::string>;

void processValue(const Value& value) {
    std::visit(overloaded {
        [](int i) { std::cout << "Int: " << i; },
        [](double d) { std::cout << "Double: " << d; },
        [](const std::string& s) { std::cout << "String: " << s; }
    }, value);
}
Use std::variant (C++17) for type-safe unions, and std::visit with overloaded lambdas for processing.
// Anti-pattern: Unnecessary copying
std::vector<int> createLargeVector() {
    std::vector<int> result;
    // Fill result...
    return result;
}

void processVector() {
    std::vector<int> vec = createLargeVector(); // Copy?
    // Process vec...
}

// Better approach: Use move semantics
std::vector<int> createLargeVector() {
    std::vector<int> result;
    // Fill result...
    return result; // RVO/NRVO may apply
}

void processVector() {
    std::vector<int> vec = createLargeVector(); // Move if RVO/NRVO doesn't apply
    // Or explicitly move if needed:
    std::vector<int> vec2 = std::move(vec); // vec is now in a valid but unspecified state
    // Process vec2...
}
Use move semantics to avoid unnecessary copying of large objects, especially when transferring ownership.
// Anti-pattern: Unnecessary string copies
bool startsWith(const std::string& str, const std::string& prefix) {
    return str.substr(0, prefix.size()) == prefix;
}

// Better approach: Use std::string_view (C++17)
bool startsWith(std::string_view str, std::string_view prefix) {
    return str.substr(0, prefix.size()) == prefix;
}
Use std::string_view (C++17) for functions that only need to read string data, to avoid unnecessary copies.
// Anti-pattern: Ignoring exceptions
void processFile(const std::string& filename) {
    std::ifstream file(filename);
    // No check if file opened successfully
    std::string line;
    while (std::getline(file, line)) {
        // Process line...
    }
}

// Better approach: Proper exception handling
void processFile(const std::string& filename) {
    try {
        std::ifstream file(filename);
        if (!file) {
            throw std::runtime_error("Failed to open file: " + filename);
        }
        
        std::string line;
        while (std::getline(file, line)) {
            // Process line...
        }
    } catch (const std::exception& e) {
        std::cerr << "Error: " << e.what() << std::endl;
        // Handle error appropriately
    }
}
Use proper exception handling to deal with errors, and consider using the “Resource Acquisition Is Initialization” (RAII) pattern to ensure resources are properly cleaned up.
// Anti-pattern: Manual memory management
class MyClass {
public:
    MyClass() {
        data = new int[100];
    }
    
    ~MyClass() {
        delete[] data; // What if constructor throws before this is set?
    }
    
    MyClass(const MyClass& other) {
        data = new int[100];
        // Copy data...
    }
    
    MyClass& operator=(const MyClass& other) {
        if (this != &other) {
            delete[] data;
            data = new int[100];
            // Copy data...
        }
        return *this;
    }
    
private:
    int* data;
};

// Better approach: Use smart pointers and containers
class MyClass {
public:
    MyClass() = default; // No manual resource management needed
    
private:
    std::vector<int> data{100}; // Automatically managed
};
Use containers and smart pointers instead of manual memory management to avoid memory leaks and other memory-related bugs.
// Anti-pattern: Incomplete rule of three
class Resource {
public:
    Resource() { data = new int[100]; }
    ~Resource() { delete[] data; }
    // Missing copy constructor and assignment operator
    
private:
    int* data;
};

// Better approach: Rule of zero
class Resource {
private:
    std::vector<int> data{100}; // Use standard containers
};

// Or rule of five (C++11)
class LowLevelResource {
public:
    LowLevelResource() : data(new int[100]) {}
    ~LowLevelResource() { delete[] data; }
    
    // Copy operations
    LowLevelResource(const LowLevelResource& other) : data(new int[100]) {
        std::copy(other.data, other.data + 100, data);
    }
    
    LowLevelResource& operator=(const LowLevelResource& other) {
        if (this != &other) {
            std::copy(other.data, other.data + 100, data);
        }
        return *this;
    }
    
    // Move operations
    LowLevelResource(LowLevelResource&& other) noexcept : data(other.data) {
        other.data = nullptr;
    }
    
    LowLevelResource& operator=(LowLevelResource&& other) noexcept {
        if (this != &other) {
            delete[] data;
            data = other.data;
            other.data = nullptr;
        }
        return *this;
    }
    
private:
    int* data;
};
Follow the Rule of Zero (use standard containers and smart pointers), or the Rule of Five (define all special member functions) to properly manage resources.
// Anti-pattern: Unnecessary includes
// file: widget.h
#include "window.h" // Heavy include

class Widget {
public:
    void setWindow(Window* window);
    
private:
    Window* window;
};

// Better approach: Forward declarations
// file: widget.h
class Window; // Forward declaration

class Widget {
public:
    void setWindow(Window* window);
    
private:
    Window* window;
};

// file: widget.cpp
#include "widget.h"
#include "window.h" // Include only in implementation file

void Widget::setWindow(Window* window) {
    this->window = window;
}
Use forward declarations instead of including headers when you only need to refer to a class by pointer or reference, to reduce compilation dependencies and build times.
// Anti-pattern: Uninitialized variables
void processData() {
    int x; // Uninitialized
    if (someCondition()) {
        x = 42;
    }
    // x might be uninitialized here
    std::cout << x << std::endl;
}

// Better approach: Proper initialization
void processData() {
    int x = 0; // Default initialization
    if (someCondition()) {
        x = 42;
    }
    std::cout << x << std::endl;
}
Always initialize variables to avoid undefined behavior. Use uniform initialization (curly braces) when appropriate.
// Anti-pattern: Error codes
int processFile(const std::string& filename) {
    std::ifstream file(filename);
    if (!file) {
        return -1; // Error code
    }
    // Process file...
    return 0; // Success
}

// Usage
if (processFile("data.txt") != 0) {
    // Handle error
}

// Better approach: Exceptions for exceptional conditions
void processFile(const std::string& filename) {
    std::ifstream file(filename);
    if (!file) {
        throw std::runtime_error("Failed to open file: " + filename);
    }
    // Process file...
}

// Usage
try {
    processFile("data.txt");
} catch (const std::exception& e) {
    // Handle error
    std::cerr << "Error: " << e.what() << std::endl;
}
Use exceptions for exceptional conditions, and consider using std::expected (C++23) or similar for expected failures.
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